Flour is a staple ingredient in countless recipes, from fluffy pancakes and aromatic bread loaves to delectable cakes and pastries. Yet, have you ever pondered over the sheer quantity of wheat required to produce a single pound of flour? Delving into the intricacies of this age-old process, this article aims to uncover the answer to one fundamental question: How much wheat does it take to make a pound of flour?
In the world of baking, flour plays a vital role in delivering the desired texture and structure to our favorite baked goods. However, the conversion of wheat into flour is a complex procedure that involves various factors, such as wheat variety, grinding techniques, and moisture content. By unraveling the mysteries behind this process, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the humble ingredient that forms the foundation of so many delicious recipes. Join us on this insightful journey as we explore the fascinating world of wheat-to-flour transformation and discover just how much of this golden grain is needed to create a pound of flour.
What is Wheat?
Definition and characteristics of wheat
Wheat, scientifically known as Triticum, is a cereal grain that belongs to the grass family. It is one of the most widely cultivated and consumed staple foods worldwide. Wheat is known for its rich nutritional value and versatility as an ingredient. It contains essential nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, fibers, vitamins, and minerals, making it a valuable component of a balanced diet.
Different varieties of wheat and their uses
There are several varieties of wheat, each with its distinct characteristics and intended uses. Common types of wheat include hard red wheat, soft red wheat, hard white wheat, and soft white wheat. Hard wheats have a high protein content and are primarily used for bread production due to their ability to provide gluten strength. Soft wheats, on the other hand, have a lower protein content and are more suitable for pastries, cakes, and cookies.
The specific uses of wheat varieties also depend on their milling qualities. For instance, hard wheats are commonly milled into bread flour or used in combination with other wheat varieties to achieve the desired flour properties. Soft wheats, with their lower protein content, are preferred for cake flours, pastry flours, and all-purpose flours.
Understanding the different varieties of wheat and their specific uses is crucial in the food industry. Bakers, cooks, and food manufacturers need to select the appropriate wheat variety based on their desired end products to achieve the desired texture, flavor, and nutritional content.
By comprehending the characteristics and uses of various wheat varieties, food professionals can optimize their ingredient choices, ensuring that they produce high-quality products that meet consumer expectations. Additionally, understanding the specific attributes of each type of wheat allows for more precise adjustments and substitutions in recipes, resulting in consistent and successful outcomes. Therefore, a thorough understanding of wheat varieties is essential for anyone involved in the food industry.
The Milling Process
Explanation
The milling process is the key step in transforming wheat into flour. This process involves several steps that are crucial in obtaining high-quality flour. First, the harvested wheat undergoes cleaning to remove any impurities such as dirt, stones, and other foreign materials. This ensures that only clean wheat is used for milling.
After cleaning, the wheat is conditioned by adding water and allowing it to rest for a brief period. Conditioning softens the outer layer of the wheat grain, making it easier to separate the outer bran layers from the endosperm, which contains the majority of the starch and protein.
The conditioned wheat then enters the milling section, where it is ground into flour by a series of rollers. Different types of mills may be used, including stone mills or roller mills. Stone mills use grinding stones to crush the wheat, while roller mills use sets of rollers to break the wheat into smaller particles.
Overview of Steps
The milling process can be divided into several steps, including grinding, sifting, and purifying. In the grinding phase, the wheat particles are further broken down into finer particles, creating a rough flour. The next step is sifting, which separates the flour into different grades based on particle size. This helps to remove any remaining bran particles and creates a consistent texture for the final flour.
Following sifting, the flour may go through a purification process, where it is passed through a series of sieves to remove any impurities or unwanted particles. This step ensures that the flour is of high quality and free from any contaminants.
Once the flour has been purified, it is then classified based on its protein content. This classification helps to determine the specific use of the flour, as flours with higher protein content are generally preferred for bread-making, while those with lower protein content are suitable for cakes and pastries.
Overall, the milling process is a complex and precise operation that requires careful attention to detail in order to produce high-quality flour. Each step plays a crucial role in obtaining the desired flour characteristics and quality. Proper milling techniques and equipment are essential in ensuring an efficient and consistent process, resulting in flour that meets the demands of the food industry.
IWheat Grain vs. Flour
Understanding the differences between whole wheat grain and flour
Wheat grain and flour are essential components of the food industry, but they have distinct characteristics and uses. While wheat grain refers to the whole seed of the wheat plant, flour is the finely ground powder obtained from grinding the grain.
Whole wheat grain contains three main parts: the bran, germ, and endosperm. The bran is the outer layer that provides fiber, vitamins, and minerals. The germ is the embryo of the wheat seed, which contains essential fatty acids, vitamins, and enzymes. The endosperm is the largest part of the grain and serves as a source of carbohydrates, proteins, and some vitamins.
Flour, on the other hand, is produced by milling the wheat grain and removing the bran and germ. This refined process results in a finer texture and longer shelf life compared to whole wheat grain. However, it also reduces the nutritional content of the flour, as the removal of the bran and germ leads to a loss of fiber, vitamins, and minerals.
Nutritional content and health benefits of each
Whole wheat grain is considered healthier than refined flour due to its higher nutritional content. It is rich in dietary fiber, which helps regulate digestion, control blood sugar levels, and reduce the risk of certain diseases such as heart disease and type 2 diabetes. Whole wheat grain is also a good source of B vitamins, iron, and magnesium.
Flour, although less nutritious than whole wheat grain, still provides essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, and some vitamins. It is a versatile ingredient used in various baking and cooking applications, making it a staple in many households. However, its lower fiber content may lead to a less favorable impact on blood sugar levels compared to whole wheat grain.
It is important to note that the nutritional content and health benefits vary depending on the type of flour. Whole wheat flour, for example, retains more of the original grain’s nutritional value compared to refined flours like all-purpose flour or cake flour. Additionally, different types of flours may have varying extraction rates, leading to different flour yields and nutritional compositions.
Understanding the differences between whole wheat grain and flour, as well as their respective nutritional content and health benefits, allows individuals to make informed choices when selecting ingredients for their meals. Whether opting for the wholesome attributes of whole wheat grain or the versatility of flour, considering these factors can contribute to a balanced and nutritious diet.
Factors Affecting the Wheat to Flour Conversion Rate
Introduction
The conversion rate of wheat to flour plays a crucial role in determining the efficiency and profitability of the milling process. Understanding the factors that affect this conversion rate is essential for both farmers and millers. In this section, we will explore the various factors that can impact the wheat to flour conversion rate.
Variety and Quality of Wheat
The type and quality of wheat used have a significant influence on the conversion rate. Different varieties of wheat, such as hard wheat and soft wheat, have varying characteristics that affect the yield of flour. Hard wheat, for example, contains more gluten and protein, resulting in a higher flour yield. Conversely, soft wheat has a lower protein content and produces less flour.
The quality of the wheat, including its moisture content, cleanliness, and overall grain quality, also affects the conversion rate. Wheat with higher moisture content tends to yield less flour due to the excess moisture evaporating during the milling process. Additionally, the presence of impurities, such as dirt or foreign matter, can decrease the amount of usable flour obtained.
Milling Techniques and Equipment
The milling techniques and equipment employed in the milling process can have a significant impact on the wheat to flour conversion rate. Factors such as the size and efficiency of the milling machinery, the adjustment of milling settings, and the speed of the milling process all play a role.
For instance, the use of high-speed mills may lead to more heat generation, which can adversely affect the flour yield. On the other hand, mills equipped with advanced technology and precise control systems can optimize the milling process and improve the conversion rate.
Environmental Conditions
Environmental conditions during the cultivation and storage of wheat can also influence the conversion rate. Factors such as temperature, humidity, and pest infestation can affect the quality and yield of wheat. Wheat that has been exposed to unfavorable conditions may have lower moisture content or be prone to contamination, leading to a decrease in flour yield.
Additionally, the length and conditions of wheat storage can impact the conversion rate. Prolonged storage or inadequate storage conditions can result in wheat spoilage, mold growth, or insect infestations, which can reduce the yield of usable flour.
In conclusion, the conversion rate of wheat to flour is influenced by a combination of factors including the variety and quality of wheat used, milling techniques and equipment, and environmental conditions during cultivation and storage. Understanding these factors is vital for optimizing the conversion rate and improving the efficiency and profitability of the milling process. Farmers and millers alike must consider these factors to ensure the production of high-quality flour in various contexts.
Average Wheat to Flour Conversion Rate
Determining the average weight of flour obtained from a unit of wheat
Understanding the average wheat to flour conversion rate is essential for both the food industry and consumers. It allows for accurate planning and cost estimation in the production process and helps individuals measure and adjust the amount of wheat needed for recipes. To determine the average weight of flour obtained from a unit of wheat, several factors need to be considered.
The conversion rate can vary depending on the type and quality of wheat used, as well as the milling techniques and equipment employed. Hard wheat varieties, such as durum and hard red spring wheat, have higher protein content and generally result in higher flour yields compared to soft wheat varieties. Similarly, using modern, efficient milling equipment can increase the extraction rate and optimize flour production.
Environmental conditions during cultivation and storage can also influence the final conversion rate. Factors such as weather, temperature, and humidity levels can impact the wheat’s quality and moisture content, affecting the amount of flour obtained. Proper handling and storage practices are crucial to preserve wheat quality and maximize flour yield.
Factors that may cause variations in the conversion rate
While determining an average wheat to flour conversion rate is valuable, it is important to note that variations can occur due to several factors. One major factor is the moisture content of the wheat. Higher moisture levels can lead to lower yields as moisture loss occurs during the milling process. Conversely, extremely dry wheat can result in flour with reduced quality.
The wheat’s protein content also plays a significant role. Higher protein content usually leads to higher flour yields. Additionally, the milling techniques employed can have an impact. Methods such as stone milling produce coarser flour and may result in a lower extraction rate compared to modern roller mills.
The type of filtration system used during milling can also affect the conversion rate. Different filtration systems, such as sieves or bolting cloths, have varying mesh sizes, allowing different particle sizes to pass through them. This can influence the amount of bran and germ retained in the flour, which in turn affects the overall yield.
Understanding these factors and their potential impact on the conversion rate is crucial for both producers and consumers. By considering these variables, the industry can optimize production processes and minimize losses, while individuals can accurately adjust recipes according to the expected flour yield.
In conclusion, the average wheat to flour conversion rate is influenced by various factors, including the type and quality of wheat, milling techniques, and environmental conditions. While determining an exact conversion rate may be challenging due to these variables, understanding the key factors at play can help ensure optimum flour production and usage both on an industrial scale and in home kitchens.
The Impact of Wheat Quality on Flour Yield
Exploring how wheat quality influences flour yield
The quality of wheat used in the milling process plays a critical role in determining the yield of flour obtained. Wheat quality is influenced by various factors such as genetics, growing conditions, and post-harvest handling. Understanding how these factors affect flour yield is vital for both millers and consumers.
Key quality indicators to consider in wheat selection
When selecting wheat for milling, several key quality indicators should be taken into consideration. These include protein content, moisture content, test weight, kernel hardness, and grain size. Higher protein content generally results in higher flour yield, as proteins contribute to gluten formation, which improves the strength and elasticity of the dough. Similarly, wheat with optimal moisture content and test weight is preferred, as it ensures better milling efficiency and higher extraction rates.
Kernel hardness is another important factor to consider. Hard wheats, with a higher protein content, are typically used for bread flour production as they provide better gluten development. On the other hand, soft wheats, with a lower protein content, are more suitable for pastry and cake flours as they produce a softer and more tender texture.
Grain size also affects the milling process and flour yield. Different wheat varieties have varied grain sizes, and certain varieties are more suitable for specific flour types. For instance, durum wheat is known for its large grain size and high protein content, making it ideal for pasta and semolina flour production.
In addition to these indicators, other quality aspects such as color, odor, and foreign material presence should also be evaluated to ensure that the wheat meets the desired standards for flour production.
By carefully considering these quality indicators and selecting the appropriate wheat varieties, millers can optimize the flour yield and achieve consistent quality in their products. Similarly, consumers can make informed choices when purchasing flour by understanding how wheat quality can influence the yield and characteristics of different flour types.
In conclusion, the quality of wheat used in milling significantly impacts the yield and quality of flour obtained. Protein content, moisture content, test weight, kernel hardness, and grain size are key indicators to consider when selecting wheat for milling purposes. By understanding how these factors influence flour yield, both millers and consumers can make informed decisions and ensure the production and use of high-quality flour.
Wheat Losses in the Milling Process
Identifying areas where wheat loss can occur during milling
During the milling process, there are several areas where wheat losses can occur. It is important to identify these areas and take appropriate measures to minimize such losses.
One area where wheat loss may occur is during the cleaning and conditioning process. When wheat grains are harvested, they may contain impurities such as dirt, stones, and other foreign materials. These impurities need to be removed before milling can take place. However, during the cleaning process, some wheat grains may also be lost along with the impurities. Proper cleaning techniques and equipment are essential to minimize this loss.
Another area where wheat losses can occur is during the grinding process. The objective of grinding is to break the wheat grains into smaller particles, which can then be further processed into flour. However, inefficient grinding techniques or equipment can result in excessive loss of wheat particles. It is important for mills to use high-quality grinding equipment and monitor the grinding process to minimize such losses.
Furthermore, losses can also occur during the sifting process. Once the wheat grains are ground, the resulting particles are sifted to separate the flour from the coarser particles. However, if the sifting process is not carefully controlled, there may be a significant loss of flour particles along with the coarser particles. Mills need to ensure that the sifting process is efficient and that the appropriate mesh sizes are used to minimize flour losses.
Measures taken by mills to minimize losses
Mills employ various measures to minimize wheat losses during the milling process. One common practice is to use advanced cleaning equipment that can effectively remove impurities while minimizing the loss of good quality wheat grains. This equipment includes gravity separators, magnetic separators, and air suction systems.
To minimize losses during the grinding process, mills use high-quality grinding equipment that can achieve optimal particle size reduction without excessive loss of wheat particles. Regular maintenance and calibration of grinding equipment are also important to ensure efficient operation and minimize losses.
Another measure taken by mills to minimize losses is to carefully control the sifting process. This includes using the appropriate mesh sizes to separate the flour from the coarser particles without significant loss of flour. Mills often invest in advanced sifting equipment that can precisely control the separation process and minimize losses.
In addition to these measures, mills also have quality control procedures in place to monitor and minimize wheat losses. This includes regular inspections and maintenance of equipment, as well as testing samples of wheat and flour to ensure that the milling process is efficient and losses are minimized.
By implementing these measures, mills can significantly reduce wheat losses during the milling process, resulting in higher flour yields and improved overall efficiency. Minimizing wheat losses not only benefits the mill economically but also helps to conserve valuable resources and reduce waste in the food industry.
Flour Extraction Rate
Defining flour extraction rate and its significance
Flour extraction rate refers to the percentage of flour obtained from a given amount of wheat. It is an important measure that determines the efficiency of the milling process and the quality of the flour produced. The higher the extraction rate, the more flour is obtained from a unit of wheat, indicating a higher milling efficiency.
Flour extraction rate is significant as it directly affects the profitability of millers and the cost of flour for consumers. A higher extraction rate means that more flour can be produced from a specific amount of wheat, resulting in increased profitability for millers. Conversely, a lower extraction rate means that less flour is obtained, leading to financial losses for millers and higher costs for consumers.
Furthermore, the extraction rate also impacts the quality and characteristics of the flour. A higher extraction rate often results in a whiter flour with a finer texture, while a lower extraction rate produces a darker flour with more bran and germ particles. Different types of flour require different extraction rates to achieve the desired characteristics.
Calculating the extraction rate based on wheat and flour weights
To calculate the extraction rate, the weight of flour obtained from a given amount of wheat is divided by the weight of the original wheat and multiplied by 100. For example, if 100 pounds of wheat yield 72 pounds of flour, the extraction rate would be calculated as follows:
(72 pounds of flour / 100 pounds of wheat) x 100 = 72% extraction rate
The extraction rate can vary depending on several factors, such as wheat variety, milling techniques, and environmental conditions. Millers strive to achieve higher extraction rates through optimization of their milling processes, but achieving maximum extraction rates is often challenging due to various factors affecting the process.
Understanding flour extraction rates is crucial for both consumers and industry professionals. Consumers can make more informed choices about the types of flour they purchase based on their desired characteristics, such as whiteness or fiber content. Millers can assess the efficiency of their milling operations and make necessary adjustments to improve extraction rates and overall profitability.
In conclusion, the flour extraction rate is a key measure that determines the efficiency and quality of the milling process. It directly affects the profitability of millers and the cost of flour for consumers. Calculating and understanding the extraction rate is essential for making informed decisions in the wheat and flour industry.
Flour Types and Extraction Rates
Understanding Different Types of Flour
Flour is a versatile ingredient used in a wide range of culinary applications. Understanding the different types of flour and their extraction rates is crucial for bakers, chefs, and consumers alike.
There are various types of flour available in the market, each with its own specific characteristics and uses. All-purpose flour, commonly used in baking and cooking, is made from a combination of hard and soft wheat. It has a moderate protein content and can be used for a wide range of recipes. Whole wheat flour, on the other hand, is made from grinding the entire wheat grain, including the bran, germ, and endosperm. This type of flour is known for its high nutritional value and is often used in bread recipes.
Cake flour is another type of flour used primarily for making cakes and other delicate baked goods. It has a low protein content, resulting in a finer and softer texture in the final product. Other types of flour include bread flour, which has a high protein content and is ideal for bread making, and self-rising flour, which is pre-mixed with baking powder and salt.
Comparing Extraction Rates
The extraction rate refers to the percentage of flour obtained from a given amount of wheat. It is an important measure that can vary depending on the type of flour being produced.
All-purpose flour, which is commonly used in households and food establishments, typically has an extraction rate between 70% and 80%. This means that for every 100 pounds of wheat, around 70 to 80 pounds of all-purpose flour can be obtained. Whole wheat flour, on the other hand, has a higher extraction rate of around 95% to 100%. This is because it includes all parts of the wheat grain, resulting in a higher proportion of flour.
Cake flour, due to its fine texture, has a lower extraction rate ranging from 65% to 75%. Bread flour, used primarily for making bread, has a higher extraction rate of around 85% to 90%. Self-rising flour, which already contains baking powder and salt, typically has an extraction rate similar to all-purpose flour.
Understanding the extraction rates of different flours is important for bakers and chefs as it affects the quantity of flour needed for a specific recipe. It allows them to adjust their measurements accordingly to achieve the desired texture and consistency in their final products.
In conclusion, different types of flour have varying extraction rates, which impact their nutritional content and suitability for different culinary applications. Being aware of these extraction rates helps consumers make informed choices while selecting the right flour for their specific needs. Additionally, bakers and chefs can use this knowledge to ensure accurate measurements in their recipes, resulting in consistent and delicious outcomes.
Commercial vs. Home Milling
Differences in Wheat to Flour Conversion Rate
Commercial milling and home milling differ in their wheat to flour conversion rate. In commercial milling, the extraction rate, which refers to the percentage of flour obtained from the wheat, is usually higher compared to home milling. This is primarily due to the use of advanced machinery and specialized techniques employed by commercial mills.
Commercial mills are equipped with large-scale machines that have the capability to process a significant amount of wheat efficiently. These machines are designed to extract a higher percentage of flour from the wheat, resulting in a higher extraction rate. On the other hand, home milling involves smaller and less sophisticated equipment, which may not be as efficient in extracting flour from the wheat. As a result, the wheat to flour conversion rate is generally lower in home milling.
Pros and Cons of Commercial Milling
Commercial milling has its advantages and disadvantages compared to home milling. One major advantage is the consistent and high-quality flour produced by commercial mills. The advanced machinery used in commercial milling ensures that the flour is finely ground and free from impurities. Commercial mills also have strict quality control measures in place to maintain the desired standards of the flour.
Another advantage of commercial milling is the convenience it offers. Commercial mills are able to produce large quantities of flour, making it readily available for commercial use. This is particularly beneficial for businesses in the food industry that require a constant supply of flour.
However, commercial milling may have drawbacks as well. The high extraction rate achieved by commercial mills often comes at the expense of losing some of the wheat’s nutritional value. Additionally, commercial milling may not allow for the production of specialty flours or customized blends, as they primarily focus on producing standard types of flour.
Pros and Cons of Home Milling
Home milling allows individuals to have control over the quality and freshness of the flour they produce. By milling their own wheat at home, individuals can ensure that the flour is free from additives and preservatives, resulting in a healthier option. Home milling also allows for the production of a wider variety of flour types, including whole wheat flour and specialty flours.
Furthermore, home milling offers the flexibility of adjusting the coarseness of the flour according to personal preferences and specific recipes. This can be particularly advantageous for baking enthusiasts who require different types of flour for their recipes.
However, home milling may not be as convenient or cost-effective as commercial milling. Home milling equipment can be expensive to purchase and maintain, and the process of milling wheat into flour can be time-consuming. Additionally, home milling may not be suitable for individuals who require large quantities of flour on a regular basis.
In conclusion, both commercial and home milling have their own advantages and disadvantages. Commercial mills tend to have a higher wheat to flour conversion rate due to advanced machinery, while home milling offers greater control over flour quality and variety. The choice between commercial and home milling ultimately depends on individual needs and preferences, considering factors such as quality, cost, and convenience.
Flour Conversion in Baking and Cooking
Determining the amount of wheat needed for a specific amount of flour in recipes
In baking and cooking, it is crucial to accurately determine the amount of wheat needed to obtain a specific amount of flour in recipes. Flour conversion plays a significant role in ensuring the desired texture, taste, and overall outcome of the final product. Since different recipes require varying quantities of flour, understanding the wheat to flour conversion rate is essential for achieving consistent results.
To determine the amount of wheat needed for a specific amount of flour, it is important to know the extraction rate of the flour being used. The extraction rate refers to the percentage of flour obtained from a given quantity of wheat. For example, if the extraction rate is 80%, it means that 80% of the wheat will be converted into flour. By knowing the extraction rate, bakers and cooks can calculate the required amount of wheat to produce the desired quantity of flour.
Impact of flour conversion on recipe outcomes
Flour conversion directly affects the texture, volume, and structure of baked goods. Different types of flour have varying protein contents, which affect gluten development. Gluten is responsible for the elasticity and structure of baked goods. Therefore, the ratio of wheat to flour in a recipe can significantly impact the final texture, as well as the density and crumb of the product.
Another factor affected by flour conversion is taste. Whole wheat flour, for example, contains all parts of the wheat grain, including the bran and germ, which contribute to its distinct flavor. In contrast, refined flours, such as cake flour, have had the bran and germ removed, resulting in a milder taste. Understanding the flour conversion rate allows bakers and cooks to adjust the flavor profile of their recipes based on the desired outcome.
Furthermore, the cost of ingredients can be influenced by flour conversion. By accurately measuring the amount of wheat needed for a specific quantity of flour, individuals can optimize their ingredient usage and minimize waste, leading to cost savings in the long run.
Overall, understanding flour conversion in baking and cooking is essential for achieving consistent results in recipes. It allows for precise measurements, influences the final texture and taste of the product, and can help individuals manage ingredient costs effectively. By considering the wheat to flour conversion rate, bakers and cooks can ensure that their dishes turn out as intended, helping them create delicious and successful culinary creations.
Conclusion
Summary of key points discussed
Throughout this article, we have delved into the importance of understanding the ratio of wheat to flour in various contexts. We have explored the characteristics of wheat, the milling process, and the differences between whole wheat grain and flour. Furthermore, we have examined the factors that affect the wheat to flour conversion rate, including the variety and quality of wheat, milling techniques and equipment, and environmental conditions. We have also discussed the impact of wheat quality on flour yield, as well as the losses that can occur during the milling process.
Importance of considering wheat to flour conversion rate in various contexts
Understanding the wheat to flour conversion rate is crucial in multiple aspects of the food industry. For farmers and wheat producers, having knowledge of the average weight of flour obtained from a unit of wheat helps in estimating yields and planning for cultivation. Milling companies rely on efficient milling techniques and optimal wheat selection to minimize losses and maximize flour yield. Consumers, both on a commercial and home scale, benefit from understanding flour extraction rates to make informed choices about the types of flour they purchase and use in their baking and cooking.
Implications for recipe outcomes
The wheat to flour conversion rate also has significant implications for recipe outcomes. Bakers and cooks rely on accurate measurements of wheat and flour to achieve the desired texture and taste in their creations. Failing to consider the conversion rate may result in unexpected inconsistencies in the final product. Therefore, both professionals and home cooks should be aware of the conversion rate and adjust their ingredient measurements accordingly.
In conclusion, the wheat to flour conversion rate plays a vital role in various aspects of the food industry, from wheat cultivation to flour production and recipe creation. Taking into account the factors that influence this conversion rate and understanding the implications it has on flour yield and recipe outcomes can lead to more efficient and informed decision-making in the industry and better culinary experiences for consumers.